Bioresorbable Polymer–Bioactive Glass Composite Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration
Uppstu, Peter (2024-01-12)
Uppstu, Peter
Åbo Akademi - Åbo Akademi University
12.01.2024
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Article IV: CC BY
The permanent address of the publication is
https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-12-4338-7
https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-12-4338-7
Abstract
Bone defects, caused by disease or trauma, pose a significant challenge in medical care. Bone tissue transplants are commonly used for their treatment, and bone is the second most transplanted tissue in the world. Because of inherent issues relating to the transplants, synthetic materials are investigated for use as bone graft substitutes. In the research covered in this thesis, we studied synthetic three-dimensional scaffolds for bone regeneration. The aim of these scaffolds is to fill bone defects, allow cells from nearby tissues to enter their pores, and promote new tissue formation as they degrade. Ideally, as the scaffold is completely degraded, the defect site will be filled with newly formed bone. Using different methods, we manufactured porous scaffolds with either a polymer matrix or a bioactive glass matrix and studied their degradation in vitro in aqueous degradation media. We also tested two of the scaffolds for their ability to support bone formation in an in vivo model.
In the first two articles, we manufactured poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)-based scaffolds with the gas foaming and freeze drying techniques, with or without incorporation of bioactive glass or magnesium hydroxide, and evaluated their degradation in vitro. Several scaffolds underwent unwanted shrinkage, and their pore structure was not satisfactory. However, the innovative approach of integrating bioactive glass fibres into freeze-dried structures resulted in dimensionally stable scaffolds featuring wellinterconnected porosity. We also studied the magnesium ion release from gasfoamed scaffolds. As the role of magnesium in bone regeneration may vary in time during the healing process, it may be beneficial to regulate the magnesium release temporally, with a higher initial release followed by rapidly decreasing release concentrations. Scaffolds with magnesium-containing bioactive glasses released low concentrations of magnesium, whereas scaffolds with magnesium hydroxide provided a significantly higher and more immediate release, which may be particularly beneficial for the bone healing process.
In the third article, two scaffolds, one gas-foamed PLGA scaffold and one freeze-dried PLGA scaffold with bioactive glass fibres, were tested in a bone regeneration model in vivo and compared with commercial bone graft substitutes. Whereas bone healed well with the commercial materials, the tissue regeneration with the experimental scaffolds was not equally good. The unsatisfactory performance of the experimental scaffolds was likely due to their pore size and pore interconnectivity. Pore interconnectivity of the gasfoamed PLGA scaffolds was presumably too low to allow for efficient bone ingrowth, and the pore size of the freeze-dried PLGA–bioactive glass scaffolds was probably too small to allow for dense vascularisation within the scaffold structure, thus inhibiting extensive bone ingrowth.
In the last study, we manufactured porous bioactive glass scaffolds with different polylactide (PLA) coating stereochemistries. The aim was to find out similarities and differences in the mechanical and degradation properties of amorphous, homocrystalline, and stereocomplex crystalline PLA. Although the coatings were only 3 wt.% of the glass scaffold mass, scaffolds coated with PLA had an approximately four-fold higher compressive toughness before immersion and a two-fold higher toughness after immersion in simulated body fluid. Both homocrystalline and stereocomplex crystalline PLA had significantly higher toughness than the amorphous coatings. The coatings also moderated the initial pH peak caused by the bioactive glass, which may be beneficial in an in vivo setting.
Overall, the results in this thesis provide insights into the feasibility of scaffold materials and structures for bone regeneration and the biological requirements for bone growth within the scaffolds. An optimised pore structure should be sought with methods that have a high repeatability and require minimal manual work, such as additive manufacturing techniques. By making informed choices of bioresorbable polymers, for example through variations in the polymer stereochemistry, or by optimisation of the release pattern of biologically active substances, it could be possible to produce scaffolds tailored to exhibit specific properties essential for effective bone regeneration.
In the first two articles, we manufactured poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)-based scaffolds with the gas foaming and freeze drying techniques, with or without incorporation of bioactive glass or magnesium hydroxide, and evaluated their degradation in vitro. Several scaffolds underwent unwanted shrinkage, and their pore structure was not satisfactory. However, the innovative approach of integrating bioactive glass fibres into freeze-dried structures resulted in dimensionally stable scaffolds featuring wellinterconnected porosity. We also studied the magnesium ion release from gasfoamed scaffolds. As the role of magnesium in bone regeneration may vary in time during the healing process, it may be beneficial to regulate the magnesium release temporally, with a higher initial release followed by rapidly decreasing release concentrations. Scaffolds with magnesium-containing bioactive glasses released low concentrations of magnesium, whereas scaffolds with magnesium hydroxide provided a significantly higher and more immediate release, which may be particularly beneficial for the bone healing process.
In the third article, two scaffolds, one gas-foamed PLGA scaffold and one freeze-dried PLGA scaffold with bioactive glass fibres, were tested in a bone regeneration model in vivo and compared with commercial bone graft substitutes. Whereas bone healed well with the commercial materials, the tissue regeneration with the experimental scaffolds was not equally good. The unsatisfactory performance of the experimental scaffolds was likely due to their pore size and pore interconnectivity. Pore interconnectivity of the gasfoamed PLGA scaffolds was presumably too low to allow for efficient bone ingrowth, and the pore size of the freeze-dried PLGA–bioactive glass scaffolds was probably too small to allow for dense vascularisation within the scaffold structure, thus inhibiting extensive bone ingrowth.
In the last study, we manufactured porous bioactive glass scaffolds with different polylactide (PLA) coating stereochemistries. The aim was to find out similarities and differences in the mechanical and degradation properties of amorphous, homocrystalline, and stereocomplex crystalline PLA. Although the coatings were only 3 wt.% of the glass scaffold mass, scaffolds coated with PLA had an approximately four-fold higher compressive toughness before immersion and a two-fold higher toughness after immersion in simulated body fluid. Both homocrystalline and stereocomplex crystalline PLA had significantly higher toughness than the amorphous coatings. The coatings also moderated the initial pH peak caused by the bioactive glass, which may be beneficial in an in vivo setting.
Overall, the results in this thesis provide insights into the feasibility of scaffold materials and structures for bone regeneration and the biological requirements for bone growth within the scaffolds. An optimised pore structure should be sought with methods that have a high repeatability and require minimal manual work, such as additive manufacturing techniques. By making informed choices of bioresorbable polymers, for example through variations in the polymer stereochemistry, or by optimisation of the release pattern of biologically active substances, it could be possible to produce scaffolds tailored to exhibit specific properties essential for effective bone regeneration.